The city remained a beacon of Hellenic culture in the region and would do so up until the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Though capable of great diplomacy and skill in dealing with conquered peoples and their rulers, Alexander was not known for tolerating personal opinions which conflicted with his own, and this intolerance was exacerbated by drinking. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. The surprised Persians did not even have time to seize their weapons and the Macedonian forces massacred them. Map of Alexander the Great's ConquestsUS Military Academy (Public Domain). After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria. Alexander the Great, the ancient Macedonian ruler, is known as one of the greatest military strategists in history. He called her "mother", finding her more amicable than his megalomaniacal snake-worshiping mother Olympias. The wars of Alexander the Great ( Greek: ) were a series of conquests that were carried out by Alexander III of Macedon from 336 BC to 323 BC. Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. World History Encyclopedia. Submitted by Joshua J. She enjoys dabbling in historical fiction, but generally finds the actual true individuals of history and their stories more fascinating than any fictional invention. Alexander's military prowess was first noted at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. What was Alexander the Greats childhood like? After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire's forces in battle of Gabai against Spitamenes, and Coenus (Koinos), one Alexander the Great's generals in 328 BC, he began a new campaign to Ariana in 327 BC. Mark has lived in Greece and Germany and traveled through Egypt. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men theyd follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It is another attempt to unite the two cultures. According to Diodorus Siculus, one of the stipulations of Alexander's will was the creation of a unified empire between former enemies. He then "liberated" (as he phrased his conquest) the cities of Sardis and Ephesus from Persian rule that same year before moving on to others in Asia Minor. A map showing the route that Alexander the Great took to conquer Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria. [citation needed], Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The Macedonian troops became progressively uncomfortable with Alexander's apparent deification and adoption of Persian customs. Though Alexander had conquered part of the Persian empire, it was still vast in area and in manpower reserves, and Darius could recruit more men than Alexander could dream of. Darius, now fearing for both his throne and his life, sent a letter to Alexander in which he promised to pay a substantial ransom in exchange for the prisoners of war, and agreeing to a treaty of alliance with and the forfeiture of half of his empire to Alexander. Mark, Joshua J.. "Alexander the Great." The World History Encyclopedia logo is a registered trademark. He took the unconquerable city after a siege of just over six months. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! [37] Fearing the prospects of facing the powerful Nanda Empire armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River, refusing to march further east. The influence of Leonidas may be seen in Alexander's lifelong resilience and physical stamina as well as in his skill with horses. He did not realize that the different circumstances of the terrain made that strategy useless. Alexander the Great not only fulfilled this duty but seemed to revel in it. Though a eunuch, Batis was physically imposing and ruthless. Although his advisers recommended the use of diplomacy, Alexander ignored the advice and instead proceeded to muster together his Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 men. , while defending himself alone from the enemy onslaught within the walls. Darius was building up a massive army, drawing men from the far reaches of his empire, and planned to use sheer numbers to crush Alexander. After crossing the Hellespont, Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. In 331 BCE, Alexander met King Darius III again on the battlefield at Gaugamela (also called the Battle of Arbela), where, once again facing overwhelming numbers, he decisively defeated Darius III who fled the field. HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. Alexander wasted no time in gathering the soldiers left under his command and marching against the rebels. In 329 BCE, he founded the city of Alexandria-Eschate on the Iaxartes River, destroyed the city of Cyropolis, and defeated the Scythians at the northern borders of the empire. As king, Alexander immediately moved to assert his authority over the Greek states and to prepare for an invasion of Persia. He inherited a highly trained, mobile military force and his father's dream of conquering the Persian empire. By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leaderin fact, he never lost a battle in his life. The manes and tails of the horses were cut as a sign of mourning, and Alexander refused to promote another to Hephaestion's position as commander of the cavalry. The Tyrians then swam out from their city and cut the ships anchor lines, leading to the first use of chains to attach anchors. After thanking the group for their trouble in bringing it, he dumped it out, thereby significantly boosting the morale of his entire army. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. (Plutarch, Life of Alexander, I). 2023, A&E Television Networks, LLC. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. From the southern slope, Persian archers and catapults launched their projectiles. [19], Initially, Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable ground. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. In 336, Philip II was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguard, Pausanias. [21] The inhabitants of Gaza and their Nabataean allies did not want to lose the lucrative trade which was controlled by Gaza.[21]. Alexander the Great fought two pitched battles against the Persians, . [citation needed], The invading troops led by Alexander were outnumbered more than 2:1, yet they defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia. A small battle resulted, and Alexander's army managed to break through the city walls. A rope was forced through Batis's ankles, probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon, and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. He paid his troops, and sent a sum of money six times the annual income of Athens to Greece, in order to put down a Spartan rebellion. Rather than withdrawing, Alexander chose to leap down into the heart of the citadel alone. Alexander and the Greek States [citation needed], The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. [citation needed], As these satraps gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone's hands. He even christened his new city Alexandropolis. , a heavily fortified city in modern day Lebanon. Alexander then mounted his beloved horse Bucephalus, took his place at the head of his Companion cavalry, and led a direct assault against Darius. Presently, the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander's control. Very Short Introductions. To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet. Prior to his death, Alexander had also made plans for a Hellenic military and mercantile expansion into the Arabian Peninsula, after which he planned to turn his armies to Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula in the west. The defenders were so surprised and demoralized by this that they surrendered. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Ada of Caria, the former queen of Halicarnassus, had been driven from her throne by her usurping brother. This resistance was useless, however, as the city was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles". [9], Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt, which was led by the Illyrians and Triballi. He wanted to conquer the entire known world, which in Alexander's day, ended on the eastern end of India. Their influence over the regions they controlled created what historians refer to as the Hellenistic Period in which Greek thought and culture became entwined with that of the indigenous populace. Home Geography & Travel Historical Places ancient Greek civilization Alexander in Egypt Egypt was taken without a struggle, an indication of the dislike the subject population felt toward Persia. Bessus was captured and executed for his treachery against his former king to send the message that disloyalty of that kind would never be rewarded. He even christened his new city Alexandropolis. The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII, The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX, Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia, https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so, "How geology came to help Alexander the Great", "KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered", "The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered - The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research", "Plutarch Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)", Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources, Alexander The Great in the French museum Le Louvre, Alexander, The Great Mystery by T. Peter Limber in "Saudi Aramco Magazine", Trace Alexander's conquests on an animated map, 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great&oldid=1158669307, Wars involving Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0. The Macedonians weren't always. In both encounters, he faced at least 10,000 more men, and may have been outnumbered by two to one or more. During his two decades on the throne, Philip II had unified[2] the poleis (Greek city-states) of mainland Greece (with Macedonian hegemony) under the League of Corinth. Both Cleitus and Callisthenes had become quite vocal in their criticism of Alexander's adoption of Persian customs. Alexanders closest friend and possible lover. And all the Eastern soothsayers who happened to be then at Ephesus, looking upon the ruin of this temple to be the forerunner of some other calamity, ran about the town, beating their faces, and crying that this day had brought forth something that would prove fatal and destructive to all Asia. Ruthven (Public Domain) Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE - 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 BCE) who became king upon his father's death in 336 BCE and then conquered most of the known world of his day. They further objected to the promotion of Persians over Macedonians in the army and to Alexander's order merging Persian and Macedonian units. Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 B.C. When. There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing. At the Oracle of Siwa, in the eponymous Egyptian oasis, he was proclaimed a son of the god Zeus-Ammon. He died at Babylon at the age of 32 on 10 or 11 June 323 BCE after suffering ten days of high fever. While his exploits can certainly earn him his moniker, even more fascinating is his complex and passionate personality. Alexander, who had a weak navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy. Read This Guide Before You Travel to Athens, Greece, 5 Famous Horses and Their Roles in History, 8 Lesser-Known Facts About Alexander the Great. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Dariuss murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. He was so dangerous in a direct fight that the Mallians took to shooting at him with their bows, and one found its mark. He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. [citation needed]. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. Altogether, Alexander campaigned almost constantly for fifteen years, and in all that time he never lost a battle. The ancient historians claim that he lost more men on the crossing than he had in all his years of campaigning. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King present on the field. He succeeded in driving the king from the field on both occasions. Either way, he never named a successor. Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. Alexander went on to sack the Phoenician cities of Baalbek and Sidon (which had surrendered) in 332 BCE and then lay siege to the island city of Tyre. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. While his various tutors' influences certainly had a profound effect upon him, Alexander seemed destined for greatness from birth. Alexander returns to Susa, the administrative center of the Persian empire. San Jose State University.Bucephalus. Though his birth is well documented by historians, there is little information on his youth, aside from tales of his precociousness (he allegedly interviewed visiting dignitaries about the boundaries and strengths of Persia when he was seven years old), his tutors, and his childhood friends. Memnon of Rhodes, the Greek mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians, advocated for a scorched earth strategy. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). He charmed foreign ambassadors and won a bet with his father that he could. When Ptolemy was wounded by a poisoned arrow in India, Alexander sat by his bedside all night, despite being exhausted from battle himself. Alexander, who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner. [16] The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander's position and moved units from their center to that flank. At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. He took arrows through the leg, shoulder, and ankle. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. This army was guided by Memnon, while absolute command was split among the five satraps. He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. [17], After the battle, Alexander buried the dead Greeks and Persians and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines as an abject lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians. In only one year, Philip drastically reformed the Macedonian army and turned the fortunes of the once-backwater nation. Alexander took his fathers tactics to another level as he conquered cities across the near east. Historians' accounts of Alexander's response to this event universally agree that his grief was insupportable. [6] He also succeeded his father as head of the League of Corinth, a confederation of Greek states that were under the hegemony of Macedonia in order to combat the Achaemenid Empire. In 332 B.C. He even named a city after his horse. [18], Antipater, whom Alexander had left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free hand to install dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a rebellion. Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. In both encounters, he faced at least 10,000 more men, and may have been outnumbered by two to one or more. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph. "The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace". Alexander intended to march on and cross the River Ganges toward further conquests, but his troops, worn out by the hard-fought battle with Porus (in which, according to Arrian, Alexander lost 1000 men), mutinied in 326 BCE and refused to go further. Remove Ads. he laid. Leaving a small force to occupy the Macedonian camp, he led the rest on a treacherous, narrow path to attack the Persians from the rear. Alexander took his fathers tactics to another level as he conquered cities across the near east. Considering all of these factors and the close ties Alexander had with the city and the nation, Alexandria is the most likely location of his tomb. Most people have heard of Alexander of Macedonia, the young Greek warlord who became king at the age of twenty and had conquered the ancient world by the time of his sudden death at thirty-two. [28] Ariobarzanes had hoped that defeating Alexander at the Persian Gates would allow the Persians more time to field another army, and possibly stop the Macedonian invasion altogether. Alexander was unsure how to deal with this, so he decided to scare them into submission. Once hed cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his fathers footsteps and continue Macedonias world domination. The defile was very narrow, and could have been easily defended. Culture Reference Who was Alexander the Great? , in the southern regions of modern Pakistan, on his journey back from India to Babylon. He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius. The Persian line then collapsed, and Darius fled. Omissions? Although only 18 years old, he helped turn the tide of battle in the decisive Macedonian victory which defeated the Greek allied city-states. Ancient History Encyclopedia.The Battle of Issus. Alexander couldnt let the claim stand. In c. 327 BCE Alexander would dispose of both Callisthenes and Cleitus, in separate incidents, for treason and questioning his authority, respectively. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia. After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, Macedonian cavalry led by Alexander on the right, and allied Thessalian cavalry led by Parmenion on the left. In 336 BC Alexander the Great became king of Macedon. Historyofmacedonia.org.Alexander of Macedonia. Alexander's habit of drinking to excess was well known, and certainly in the case of Cleitus' death, significantly influenced the murder. Although the Diadochi failed in the peaceful fulfillment of his wishes, through the Hellenization of their empires they contributed to Alexander's dream of cultural unity; even if such unity could never be fully realized. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings. It continuously attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander, who would have none of it. He would become court historian and follow Alexander on campaign. Oxyartes of Bactria had sent his wife and daughters, one of whom was Roxana, to take refuge in the fortress, as it was thought to be impregnable, and was provisioned for a long siege. He disrupted Alexander's supply routes by taking Aegean islands near the Hellespont and by fomenting rebellion in southern Greece. Siege warfare was a relatively new concept in the time of Alexander the Great. He would found the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt which would last until 30 BCE, ending with the death of his descendant Cleopatra VII (l. 69-30 BCE). and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. A large arrow pierced his chest on the left side, driving into the thoracic cavity and damaging his lung. Alexander the Great not only fulfilled this duty but seemed to revel in it. Cowed, the Greeks acknowledged his authority, and Macedonian garrisons were left in a number of Greek states. When Bucephalus passed away in India, Alexander named a city after his beloved friend. His immune system began to recover. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexanders demand to surrender. At about this time, in 324 BCE, his lifelong friend, possibly his lover, and his second-in-command, Hephaestion, died from a fever, though some reports suggest he may have been poisoned. It is mentioned by Julius Caesar that . While the main body of the line held ground against the main assault of the opposing Persians, Alexander and his companion cavalry drew the Persian left away from the battlefield, opening up a gap in their line. After he regained consciousness following the assault on Mallia, his friends came to his tent, weeping and begging him to be more careful and not put himself in such danger again. The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the defile soon abandoned it, and Alexander passed through without any problems. Having heard of the exploits of the great Macedonian general, the Indian King Omphis of Taxila submitted to his authority without a fight, but the Aspasioi and Assakenoi tribes strongly resisted. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. When he was asked who should succeed him, Alexander said, the strongest, which answer led to his empire being divided between four of his generals: Cassander, Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Seleucus (known as the Diadochi or 'successors'). He is further recognized for spreading Greek culture, language, and thought from Greece throughout Asia Minor, Egypt, and Mesopotamia to India and thus initiating the era of the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE) during which four of his generals (his successors, known as the Diadochi), in between their wars for supremacy, continued his policies of integrating Greek (Hellenistic) culture with that of the Near East. He had been at the Battle of the Granicus River, and had believed that Memnon's scorched Earth strategy would work here. Omphis, ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes, complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. After gaining control of the former Achaemenid satrapy of Gandhara, including the city of Taxila, Alexander advanced into Punjab, where he engaged in battle against the regional king Porus, whom Alexander defeated in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC,[33][34] but was so impressed by the demeanor with which the king carried himself that he allowed Porus to continue governing his own kingdom as a satrap. Between fall of 330 BCE and spring of 327 BCE, he campaigned against Bactria and Sogdiana, hard-fought battles which he won as he had every engagement thus far. Yet after the unexpected deaths of his two older brothers, Philip suddenly found himself the king of a struggling nation. After the Siege of Gaza, Alexander advanced from Syria towards the heart of the Persian Empire, crossing both the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers without any opposition. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his eastern satrapies. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. Callisthenes became one of these when he was implicated in a plot. Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers. Alexander, in what the historian Arrian calls one of his finest gestures, would not drink water that his men could not have. [13], In these early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Seeing that he had broken the Persian line, Alexander led his horse companions in oblique order further to the right in order to outflank the Persians and buy time for his infantry to cross the river. The harsh terrain of the desert, and the military engagements, took a great toll on his troops, and by the time they reached Susa in 324 BCE, Alexander had sustained considerable losses. History.Com works with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him troops became progressively uncomfortable with,! 'S scorched earth strategy would work here time the Persian navy returned to their! Surprised Persians did not even have time to seize their weapons and the Macedonian and... To seize their weapons and the Macedonian troops became progressively uncomfortable with Alexander, I ) navy, constantly! 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