Cabo Verde is named for the westernmost cape of Africa, Cape Verde (French: Cap Vert), which is located in nearby Senegal and is the nearest point on the continent. The most popular dance style in Cape Verde is called Funana which originated on the island of Santiago and is danced in pairs with fast hip movements and a lively rhythm. The official language of government is Portuguese. In December 1974, the PAIGC and Portugal signed an agreement providing for a transitional government composed of Portuguese and Cape Verdeans. Between 2000 and 2009, real GDP increased on average by over seven percent a year, well above the average for Sub-Saharan countries and faster than most small island economies in the region. Corrections? Cape Verde is a popular destination especially if you are looking for a relaxing, sun-filled package holiday. In total, Cape Verde covers an area of 4033 square km's (1557 square miles). [57] Cabo Verde is a leader in renewable energy in sub-Saharan Africa. Textbooks have been made available to 90 percent of school children, and 98 percent of the teachers have attended in-service teacher training. [103] Mitu Monteiro, a local kitesurfer, was the 2008 Kite Surfing World Champion in the wave discipline. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects [2] [3] the total population was 587,925 in 2021, compared to only 178,000 in 1950. [43], Although located in Africa, Cape Verde has always had close relations with Europe. The islands rodent population probably originated with rodents carried on early ships. [69], In early January 2018, the government announced that the minimum wage would be raised to 13,000 CVE (US$140 or EUR 130) per month, from 11,000 CVE, which was effective in mid-January 2018. How long is the flight to Cape Verde from the UK? [90] Although most children have access to education, some problems remain. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. The harmattan does reach half the archipelago, bringing hot winds and Saharan sands along with it during November through March. [19], In 1956, Amlcar Cabral and a group of fellow Cape Verdeans and Guineans organized (in Portuguese Guinea) the clandestine African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC). [45] Average temperatures range from 22C (72F) in February to 27C (80.6F) in September. [78] Islam is the largest minority religion. Since 2007, the UN has classified it as a developing nation rather than a least developed country. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Acts of sabotage eventually grew into a war in Portuguese Guinea that pitted 10,000 Soviet Bloc-supported PAIGC soldiers against 35,000 Portuguese and African troops.[19]. Generally moderate, the climate is characterized by stable temperatures with extreme aridity. The overall college education rate (i.e., college graduates and undergraduate students) in Cape Verde is about 24%, of the local college-age population. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. [45] Ocean cliffs have been formed by catastrophic debris landslides. Cookies collect information about your preferences and your devices and are used to make the site work as you expect it to, to understand how you interact with the site, and to show advertisements that are targeted to your interests. From Boston, it takes about 7 hours to get to Cape Verde. [26], In October 2021, opposition candidate and former prime minister, Jose Maria Neves of PAICV, won Cape Verde's presidential election. Please select which sections you would like to print: Also known as: Cape Verde, Repblica de Cabo Verde, Republic of Cape Verde, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology, Rhode Island College; Adjunct Professor of African Studies, Naval War College (Rhode Island). Cabo Verdes soils, primarily volcanic or igneous in origin, are generally shallow, coarse, and rocky. [19], The country's future economic prospects depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, the encouragement of tourism, remittances, outsourcing labour to neighbouring African countries, and the momentum of the government's development programme. Population Demographics of Cape Verde, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Appeals are to the Supreme Court.[19]. Cape Verde is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language. Before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited. Major populations exist in countries with cultural and linguistic similarities, such as Spain (65,500), France (25,000), Senegal (25,000), and Italy (20,000). [81] The islands have a long history of emigration and Cape Verdeans are highly dispersed worldwide, from Macau to Haiti and Argentina to Sweden. While most of Cape Verde receives little precipitation throughout the year, the northeastern slopes of high mountains see significant rainfall due to orographic lift, especially in areas far from the sea. [19] In February 2001, the PAICV-supported presidential candidate Pedro Pires defeated former MpD leader Carlos Veiga by only 13 votes. As of late 2020, the project, now named TechPark Cabo Verde, is slated for completion in June 2022. Americans may not have heard much about Cape Verde, but Europeans are much more familiar with the islands as a winter escape. The 12 Best Things to Do on Sao Miguel Island, the Azores, Tanzania Travel Guide: Essential Facts and Information, The Best Beach Vacation Destinations for Adventure, 10 of the Best Small Towns in South Africa, 12 Best Things to Do in Cape Town, South Africa. The Muslim population in Cape Verde has been growing steadily in the past few years. [45] On Santiago, Santo Anto, and So Nicolau, arid slopes give way in places to sugarcane fields or banana plantations spread along the base of towering mountains. Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amlcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for the hotel construction taking place on the island. [30], The constitution adopted in 1980 and revised in 1992, 1995 and 1999 defines the basic principles of its government. In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that it would thenceforth use the Portuguese name Cabo Verde for official purposes, including at the United Nations, even when speaking or writing in English. President Pedro Pires was narrowly re-elected in 2006 elections. Cape Verde abandoned its hope for unity with Guinea-Bissau and formed the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV). These trends were held in 2017. Cape Verde is a collection of nine islands off the coast of West Africa, roughly near Senegal and Mauritania. On 24 October 2013, the country's delegation to the United Nations informed it that other countries should no longer use Cape Verde or any other translations of Cabo Verde as part of its official name: all countries should use Republic of Cabo Verde as the country's official name. All but the airports on Brava and Santo Anto enjoy scheduled air service. Overview. At this moment, the best option seems to be going by Binter, a Spanish airline serving mainly the Canary Islands, but also other destinations in that region, for instance, on the North and Northwest African mainland. Endemic birds include Alexander's swift (Apus alexandri), Bourne's heron (Ardea purpurea bournei), the Raso lark (Alauda razae), the Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis), and the Iago sparrow (Passer iagoensis). [19], In the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade. Some xerophilous (desert-type) plants are found rooted in the brackish subsoil of Maio, Sal, and Boa Vista. [citation needed] The first novel written by a woman from Cabo Verde was A Louca de Serrano by Dina Salstio; its translation, as The Madwoman of Serrano, was the first translation of any Cabo Verdean novel to English.[101][102]. It declined economically in the 19th century after the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade, and many of its inhabitants emigrated during that period. Possible early references to Cape Verde date back at least 2000 years. Cape Verdean literature is one of the richest of Lusophone Africa. [78] Many Cape Verdeans syncretize Christianity with indigenous African beliefs and customs.[80]. It is also used in newspapers, television, and radio. Geologically, the islands, covering a combined area of slightly over 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 square miles), are principally composed of igneous rocks, with volcanic structures and pyroclastic debris comprising the majority of the archipelago's total volume. A resort in Sal. Quiz, https://www.britannica.com/place/Cabo-Verde, Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Cabo Verde, Michigan State University - globalEDGE - Cabo Verde: Introduction, Cabo Verde - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Cabo Verde - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). [28], Cape Verde is a stable semi-presidential representative democratic republic. "V-Dem [CountryYear/CountryDate] Dataset v11.1" Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. Cape Verde's crime rate is very low and people are friendly. [citation needed], According to the president of Nauru, in 2011 Cape Verde was ranked the eighth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change. Extensive salt flats are found on Sal and Maio. Cabo Verde, also called Cape Verde, country comprising a group of islands that lie 385 miles (620 km) off the west coast of Africa. [41] In 2017 Cape Verde signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. [51] The archipelago can be divided into four broad ecological zones arid, semiarid, subhumid and humid, according to altitude and average annual rainfall ranging from less than 100 millimetres (3.9 inches) in the arid areas of the coast as in the Deserto de Viana (67 millimetres (2.6 inches) in Sal Rei) to more than 1,000 millimetres (39 inches) in the humid mountain. Praia, on Santiago, is the capital. In the 21st century, a few thousand Europeans and Latin Americans have settled in the country, mostly professionals, entrepreneurs, and retirees. Each island has its own reasons for drawing in tourists, whether that is pristine white sand beaches, water sports, an array of wildlife, walking and hiking, beautiful landscapes or fantastic culture . The total expenditure on education was 5.6% of GDP (2010). The country's most successful sports team is the Cape Verde national basketball team, which won the bronze medal at the FIBA Africa Championship 2007, after beating Egypt in its last game. Cape Verde is famous for wave sailing[103] (a type of windsurfing) and kiteboarding. The archipelago consists of ten islands and . Historical volcanism (within human settlement) has been restricted to the island of Fogo. Since 1991, the government has pursued market-oriented economic policies, including an open welcome to foreign investors and a far-reaching privatization programme. The current population on Cape Verde hovers at around half a million. Cabo Verdean men fleeing poverty at home joined the crews of US whaling ships that stopped in the islands. [95], Cape Verde has a high rate of internet penetration and a growing mobile phone market. Islam Around 1.8% of Cabo Verdeans identify with the Islamic faith. The PAICV and its predecessor established a one-party system and ruled Cape Verde from independence until 1990.[19]. It lies between latitudes 14 and 18N, and longitudes 22 and 26W. However, Cape Verde gradually recovered economically by becoming an important commercial center and useful stopover point along major shipping routes. Pico do Fogo, the largest active volcano in the region, erupted in 2014. multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [72, Which Country Is Larger By Population? The country is a horseshoe-shaped cluster of ten islands (nine inhabited) and eight islets,[45] that constitute an area of 4033km2 (1557 sq mi).[45]. The only truly endemic species, however, are the cane warbler and the Raso lark, which is restricted to Raso, one of the smallest uninhabited islets. [24] In April 2021, the ruling center-right Movement for Democracy (MpD) of Prime Minister Ulisses Correia e Silva won the parliamentary election. Cape Verde (/ v r d (i)/ ()) or Cabo Verde (/ k b o v r d e / (), / k b-/) (Portuguese: Cabo Verde, pronounced: [kabu ved]), officially the Republic of Cabo Verde, is an island country in Africa.It is a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, 570 km (354 mi) off the coast of Western Africa.The islands cover a combined area of slightly over 4,000 km 2 . [93], In 2015, the government announced a project to build a technology park for business, research, and development. Once you are in Cape Verde, the most convenient way to travel from island to island is, obviously, flying. Despite having few natural resources and being semi-desert, the country boasts the highest living standards in the region and has attracted thousands of immigrants of different nationalities. Two years later, these were followed by a Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, 20172021.[66]. Its population of around 483,628 (as of the 2021 Census[update]) is mostly of mixed African and European heritage, and predominantly Roman Catholic, reflecting the legacy of Portuguese rule. The Barlavento Islands include Santo Anto, So Vicente, Santa Luzia (which is uninhabited), So Nicolau, Sal, and Boa Vista, together with the islets of Raso and Branco. Agriculture is practiced either in a limited way at high elevations or by intense terracing of the sharp-cut valleys. Cape Verde has few natural resources. There are also well-known artists born to Cape Verdean parents who excelled themselves in the international music scene. Note the ferries are not always on time, so make sure your plans stay flexible as some of the islands take half a day to get to. [45], A popular dish served in Cape Verde is cachupa, a slow-cooked stew of corn (hominy), beans, and fish or meat. There are also direct flights from east coast USA. [10][14] Speakers of English have used the name Cape Verde for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country. In 2016, Cape Verdean Armed Forces were involved in the Monte Tchota massacre, a green-on-green incident that resulted in 11 deaths. The former is located by the sea, easily making it a hangout spot for lovers of the ocean. The Carnival and the island of So Vicente are portrayed in the 2015 feature documentary Tchindas, nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards. On the other hand, the country's historical trajectory included, from the beginning, a process of social class formation. Head to the island of So Vicente the week of Shrove Tuesday (February 25) to catch Cape Verde's. There are many geckos and lizards and several species of skinks, including a rare and endangered giant skink. [22], President Jorge Carlos Fonseca led the country since 2011 Cape Verde presidential election and he was re-elected in the 2016 election. Another great exponent of traditional music from Cape Verde was Antonio Vicente Lopes, better known as Travadinha, and Ildo Lobo, who died in 2004. African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde, African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde, List of countries by Human Development Index Africa, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Learn how and when to remove this template message, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, "Constituio da Repblica de Cabo Verde", "On the Occasion of the Republic of Cabo Verde's National Day", "World Economic Outlook database: April 2022", "Cape Verde Gets New Name: 5 Things to Know About How Maps Change", "Cabo Verde pe fim traduo da sua designao oficial", "Cape Verde, Country on the West Coast of Africa | South African History Online", Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS, "Cape Verde President Fonseca on track to win re-election", "Cape Verde opposition wins back parliament", "Cape Verde ruling party retains power after winning legislative vote", "Cabo Verde: 150th state to ratify the 2005 UNESCO Convention", "Opposition candidate Neves wins Cape Verde election", "Cape Verde's new president Jose Maria Neves to be sworn in on Nov. 9", "Opposition returns to power in Cape Verde after 15 years", "Cape Verde opens first embassy in Nigeria | Premium Times Nigeria", "Remarks by the President After Meeting with African Leaders", "2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance", "Cape Verde | 2010 Index of Economic Freedom", "World Economic Forum: The Global Information Technology Report 20102011", "Cape Verde-EU 'Special Partnership' takes shape", "Cape Verde could seek EU membership this year", "Cape Verde becomes the 119th State to join the Rome Statute system", "Chapter XXVI: Disarmament No. [19], In 2011, on four islands a wind farm was built that supplies about 30% of the electricity of the country. An ideal holiday destination for everyone! Only five of the ten main islands (Santiago, Santo Anto, So Nicolau, Fogo, and Brava) normally support significant agricultural production,[63] and over 90% of all food consumed in Cape Verde is imported. Unlike countries on the African continent, there are no tribes in Cape Verde. The country is named after the Cap-Vert peninsula, on the Senegalese coast. There are now more Cape Verdeans living in other countries than on the Islands themselves. The original Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics. There are a number of species of butterflies, but none is endemic, and all the species are of African origin. 2021. "[99] Cape Verde's quintessential national music is the morna, a melancholy and lyrical song form typically sung in Cape Verdean Creole. The archipelago of modern-day Cape Verde was formed approximately 4050 million years ago during the Eocene era. [19] Its small number of wineries making Portuguese-style wines have traditionally focused on the domestic market, but have recently met with some international acclaim. Unemployment has been falling rapidly, and the country is on track to achieve most of the UN Millennium Development Goals including halving its 1990 poverty level. [45] A desert is usually defined as terrain that receives less than 250mm (9.8in) of annual rainfall. In some such areas this precipitation is sufficient to support a rainforest habitat, albeit one significantly affected by the islands' human presence. The shrubs remaining in these areas are mostly thorny or bitter; some are toxic. Mindelo on So Vicente is the main port for cruise ships and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Anto. [56] In 2023 UN Secretary-General Antnio Guterres arrived in Cabo Verde to raise concerns about climate change. [76], The vast majority of Cape Verdeans are Christian; reflecting centuries of Portuguese rule, Roman Catholics make up the single largest religious community, at just under 80 percent, as of 2010 (slightly down from 85 percent of the population in 2007). He said that the country is on the frontlines of the existential crisis generated by climate disruptions and that world leaders need to take action to address the climate crisis. [citation needed] The most popular music genre after morna is the coladeira, followed by funan and batuque music. Various governments have changed their travel warnings to restrict travel during this time. The largest diaspora community in New Bedford, Massachusetts, dating to the early 1800s, is a byproduct of the transatlantic whaling industry. A budding independence movement originally led by Amlcar Cabral, assassinated in 1973 passed on to his half-brother Lus Cabral and culminated in independence for the archipelago in 1975. Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported. The Cape Verde archipelago is in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 570 kilometres (350mi) off the western coast of the African continent, near Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania as well as part of the Macaronesia ecoregion. There was no research being conducted in either medical or agricultural sciences. [94], Cape Verde counted 25 researchers in 2011, a researcher density of 51 per million inhabitants. [84] They are now one of the top ten immigrant groups in Boston, and the largest hailing from Africa. The HIV-AIDS prevalence rate among Cape Verdeans between 15 and 49 years old is 0.8%.[88]. [13] The name Cap-Vert, in turn, comes from the Portuguese language Cabo Verde ('green cape'), the name that Portuguese explorers gave the cape in 1444, a few years before they came across the islands. Because of its excellent harbour, the city of Mindelo, located on the island of So Vicente, became an important commercial centre during the 19th century. You may wonder where Cape Verde is, this relatively unknown archipelago of 10 islands, sits off the West Coast of Africa. The overwhelming majority of the population of Cabo Verde is of mixed European and African descent and is often referred to as mestio or Crioulo. [82] The diaspora may be much larger than official statistics indicate, as, until independence in 1975, Cape Verdean immigrants had Portuguese passports. Legislative elections in December 1995 increased the MpD majority in the National Assembly. The second wave of Cape Verdean immigrants arrived after Cape Verde gained independence in 1975. On the higher islands and somewhat wetter islands, exclusively in mountainous areas, like Santo Anto island, the climate is suitable for the development of dry monsoon forests, and laurel forests. [104] Josh Angulo, a Hawaiian and 2009 PWA Wave World Champion, has done much to promote the archipelago as a windsurfing destination. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. Porto Novo on Santo Anto is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol. This is the Port of Brava at the little town of Furna on the island's north coast. Morna is another popular Cape Verdean dance style that originated on the island of Boa Vista and has a slow tempo with a melancholic melody. A Cape Verde hurricane or Cabo Verde hurricane is an Atlantic hurricane that originates at low- latitude in the deep tropics from a tropical wave that has passed over or near the Cape Verde islands after exiting the coast of West Africa. The national constitution calls for measures to give it parity with Portuguese. TACV also has regularly scheduled flights to and from Amsterdam, Madrid, Lisbon,and Milan. Fruits such as bananas and papayas are available year-round, while others like mangoes and avocados are seasonal. This is not a sum of two cultures living side by side, but a new culture resulting from an exchange that began in the 15th century. Each island is unique and different. Over 22,000 foreign-born residents are naturalized, hailing from over 90 countries. [1] : 25 Cabo Verde is named for the westernmost cape of Africa, Cape Verde (French: Cap Vert), which is located in nearby Senegal and is the nearest point on the continent. The country's most well-known player is Walter Tavares, who plays for Real Madrid of Spain. It comprises a group of islands of the Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal. Of the eight engineers involved in research and development, one was a woman. [78] Most other religious groups are Protestant, with the evangelical Church of the Nazarene forming the second largest community; other sizeable denominations are the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Assemblies of God, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. [32], In November 2021, Cape Verde opened its first embassy in Nigeria. Shared taxis are the cheapest way and they have set routes. [45] Football games and church activities are typical sources of social interaction and entertainment. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons", "Eleven shot dead in Cape Verde, including two Spanish citizens", "Sprungbrett nach Westafrika David X. Noack", "The Peace Corps Welcomes You to Cape Verde", "North-East Atlantic Islands: The Macaronesian Archipelagos", "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm", "Klimatafel von Santa Maria / Sal (Int.Flugh.) Cape Verde is a multi-ethnic society, which means that it is home to people of many different ethnic backgrounds. The main attractions in Cape Verde include: Check out tour operators that specialize in Cape Verde for the best deals. Tourism in Cape Verde, a group of islands off the coast of Senegal, West Africa, started in the 1970s on the island of Sal and increased slowly in the 1980s and 1990s. Kilometers of white and sandy beaches, historical towns, unspoiled nature, whales and turtles, pleasant weather, great food and a Portuguese atmosphere. The economy of Cape Verde is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for more than 70% of GDP. Because of this, some scholars argue that Cape Verde may be eligible to join the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and NATO.[44]. [73] A large proportion (236,000) of Cape Verdeans live on the main island, Santiago.[74]. Cape Verde has bilateral relations with some Lusophone nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations. [19] After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in importance relative to nearby Praia, which became the capital in 1770. Although the Cape Verdean educational system is similar to the Portuguese system, over the years the local universities have been increasingly adopting the American educational system; for instance, all ten existing universities in the country offer four-year bachelor's degree programs as opposed to five-year bachelor's degree programs that existed before 2010. Sal and Boa Vista The island or islands you visit depend on the kind of holiday you want, as each one offers something different. [40] In 2011 Cape Verde ratified the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. [19] It demanded improvement in economic, social and political conditions in Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea and formed the basis of the two nations' independence movement. Two others were non-operational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Anto closed for safety reasons. [19] In the late 1970s and 1980s, most African countries prohibited South African Airways from overflights but Cape Verde allowed them and became a centre of activity for the airline's flights to Europe and the United States. The media is operated by the Cape-Verdean News Agency (secondarily as Inforpress). The international success of Cesria vora has made other Cape Verdean artists, or descendants of Cape Verdeans born in Portugal, gain more space in the music market. As of October2016[update], there were 69 secondary schools throughout the archipelago (including 19 private secondary schools) and at least 10 universities in the country, which are based on the two islands of Santiago and So Vicente. [citation needed] Although nearly 35% of the population lives in rural areas, agriculture and fishing contribute only about 9% of GDP. The party won 50 of the National Assembly's 72 seats. There is also a substantial number that traces its roots to Sephardic Jews who were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th and 16th centuries during the Inquisition and were among the islands early settlers, or to other groups of Jewsmainly tradesmenwho arrived in the 19th century from Morocco. [105], The country has competed at every Summer Olympics since 1996. [92] The culture of Cape Verde is characterized by a mixture of African and European elements. The recognized national language is Cape Verdean Creole, which is spoken by the vast majority of the population. If you're traveling as a family of three or four people, the price person often goes down because kid's tickets are cheaper and hotel rooms can be shared. Most rainfall precipitation is due to condensation of the ocean mist. Praia on Santiago is the main hub for local ferry services to other islands. During the coolest season, from January to March, daytime temperatures are around 22/23 C (72/73 F) on the Barlavento islands and around 25 C (77 F) in the Sotavento. [107], 1555N 2355W / 15.917N 23.917W / 15.917; -23.917, This article is about the African country. Attractions Restaurants Discover more attractions See Trapiche Ildo Benrs At Trapiche Ildo Benrs, grogue is made using the 400-year-old trapiche (a machine for juicing sugarcane). Outside the U.S. and Europe, the biggest Cape Verdean populations are in Mexico (5,000) and Argentina (8,000). Many people say that Santiago is the Cape Verdean island that has it all! The leeward slopes, however, exhibit a characteristic rain-shadow effect that produces desert conditions, and the sparse shrub cover almost disappears. Separate courts hear civil, constitutional, and criminal cases. 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